Hello and welcome to my web page!
As a student in the Topics in Material Culture graduate seminar at the University of Toronto, I have spent the year using horse drawn vehicles as a source of evidence on nineteenth century Canadian society. Read in-depth about my research or look only at the sections that interest you!
What is material culture?
The material culture of the past (or present) includes clothing, household goods, art, architecture and landscape. Just about anything used and made by humans is material culture.
How did I decide on such a topic?
While the standard works on Canadian history have focused on the political and economic situation in pre and post Confederation Canada, the more recent social histories have attempted to integrate their findings with earlier works in order to provide a more comprehensive picture of Canadian society. However, both types of historians have, deliberately or not, ignored an extremely important source of information in their analyses: the material culture of Canada's peoples. While there are many sources on horse drawn vehicles, few studies use horse drawn vehicles as historical evidence. As a result, these sources have failed to ask questions of, and thus shed insights on, the society that produced and used these vehicles. Rather than present a traditional analysis of horse drawn vehicles, this study will use a material culture approach to determine the function and symbolic meaning of horse drawn vehicles in nineteenth century Canadian society. The hesitancy of historians to use material culture in their research was not the only reason why I chose to work with horse drawn vehicles. A three month internship at Kings Landing Historical Settlement in Prince William, New Brunswick where I worked with their horse drawn vehicle collection, which numbers close to 100, also piqued my interest.
Why should you be interested in horse drawn vehicles?
First of all, horse drawn vehicles are the precursors of cars and are a fascinating form of transport! Not to mention all of our exposure to horse drawn vehicles throughout our lives in stories such as Cinderella and television programs such as Road to Avonlea, Dr. Quinn Medicine Woman and, for the children of the 70s, Little House on the Prairie.
The Carriage Era began in Europe in the seventeenth century, reached its zenith in the second half of the nineteenth century and came to a rapid close with the invention of the automobile in the first decades of the twentieth century.This era was characterized by two factors; the enormous variety of vehicle types, and the widespread use of horse drawn vehicles for personal and public transportation.
The invention of the carriage in Europe also had important repercussions on the development of the North American continent.When the pilgrims arrived on the east coast of North America, they brought horse drawn vehicles with them, but these were mainly utility carts such as wagons.During the eighteenth century, colonists continued to import European carriages of every type. At the same time, however, colonists began to design distinctive American vehicles, as it soon became evident that the light and elegant carriages of English design were not suited to the rough roads or long distances involved in travelling in the colonies. Consequently, American vehicles were built more sturdily than their European counterparts with large wheels and long wheel bases. Toward the end of the eighteenth century, the American colonists were forced to develop their own carriage designs when the American Revolution broke out, as Congress outlawed the importing of English vehicles. After the Revolution, an era of economic expansion occurred in which carriage makers were encouraged by protective legislation and favourable tariffs to increase production. Several examples of American designs introduced at this time were the coachee, chariotee and pleasure wagon. The most popular American horse drawn vehicle was the buggy. These practical vehicles could be used for personal transportation or as working vehicles for hauling freight.
Despite this expansion in carriage production, it is important to keep in mind that at this early stage of carriage use, the majority of Americans continued to travel by water, foot, horseback or in public stage coaches. The state of the roads, as well as the high costs of these hand-built vehicles, meant that only those of high office could afford the luxury of a carriage.
As the nineteenth century progressed, roads continued to improve and led to increased use and production of horse drawn vehicles. Additionally, improvements in technology and production methods during the second half of the century contributed to the manufacture of affordable vehicles. At long last, many members of the middle class could afford to own and drive their own vehicles. The wealthy turned to increasingly specialized and sometimes custom made vehicles for various purposes, such as sport and pleasure driving.
In the early twentieth century, automobiles gained popularity and replaced horse drawn vehicles, especially for personal transportation. The horse's reign had come to an end.
Where did I get my hands on horse drawn vehicles to work with?
Howard's collection of vehicles proved to be an interesting source for several reasons. First, Howard owned a wide variety of vehicle types (eight in all) Second, Howard's vehicles can be divided broadly into the categories of business and pleasure.
What was the function and symbolic meaning of horse drawn vehicles in nineteenth century Canadian society?
The function and meaning of horse drawn vehicles were explored under the three broad categories of settlement and the economy; social uses; and consumerism.
The settlement of York (Toronto in 1834), and Ontario in general, provided an impetus for the development of roads during the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century. The building of roads was also intimately connected to the use of horse drawn vehicles, as vehicle usage increased as roads improved. The vigorous settlement of Ontario began with the Loyalists in 1784. By the late 1790s two road routes were established in Toronto; Yonge street which ran north and south, and Dundas street which ran east and west.
An examination of secondary and contemporary literature, such as The Emigrants Guide to Upper Canada indicate that early road conditions were very poor. Although in poor condition, these roads were the only link to areas of settlement and export markets and, thus, were frequently used. Settlers often ignored the condition of the roads and used horse drawn vehicles to transport agricultural goods from Toronto's hinterlands and to bring provisions back to their homesteads.
As the roads at this time were crude, it seems reasonable to suggest that these early vehicles would have to have been sturdy to negotiate the roads. Advertisements for horse drawn vehicles in the 1910 Eaton's catalogue indicate that sturdiness and strength were important issues for vehicle owners, as the ads emphasized the width and thickness of the tires and the vehicle's carrying capacity. In light of this information, it is interesting to note that although road conditions were poor and public transportation was available, Howard nevertheless purchased eight vehicles. It seems reasonable to conclude that Howard owned more vehicles than were necessary. It is likely that the symbolism and intangible meanings applied to vehicles played a role in his pattern of ownership.
Apart from their practical uses, horse drawn vehicles also had symbolic meanings for their users. In addition to the use of horse drawn vehicles in settlement and the economy, horse drawn vehicles were also used for social purposes. This pattern of use was significant to elite society, as they were the only individuals who could afford pleasure vehicles until the end of the nineteenth century. Among the elite, visiting approached a form of ritual behaviour, with visits being made at certain times of day and requiring certain types of dress. For making morning calls women were advised to wear either a walking dress or a carriage dress, but they could only wear the latter if they actually arrived in a carriage.(Frances Hoffman and Ryan Taylor. Much To Be Done, Private Life In Ontario From Victorian Diaries. Toronto: Natural Heritage/Natural History Inc, 1996.)
A question that arose from this examination of the social uses of horse drawn vehicles is whether or not women drove vehicles on their own. All evidence suggests that women did drive. The best evidence for this conclusion comes from Howard's diaries. On May 15, 1842 Howard wrote, "Sunday morning to church afternoon to the Humber Mrs.H drove Mrs. G in the chaise I and Mr. G walked home..."(The Journal of John George Howard. May 15, 1842. Vol.3. Pg.237) The carriage name "Lady's Phaeton", of course, as well as its design, further suggests that women drove.
Horse drawn vehicles were also symbols of status and esteem in the nineteenth century. Nineteenth century funerals provide good evidence for this conclusion, as contemporaries often commented in their diaries on the length of horse drawn vehicle processions from the deceased's home to the cemetary. When people died, especially where several miles might need to be covered before the burial, funeral attendees counted the number of carriages in the procession. The number would then be a source of comment in the community, as evidence of the esteem in which the deceased was held.
One writer suggested in 1904 that the possession of a vehicle was an emblem of success in life, as they were visible signs that the owner or his forbearers had succeeded in accumulating enough worldly goods to enable him to indulge in such luxuries.(Francis M. Ware, Driving. London: William Heinemann, 1904. Pg.3) These notions of status clearly affected Howard, as he owned eight vehicles, the majority of which were pleasure vehicles which denoted high status. The Howards engaged in many social outings, which meant that at these times they would be under scrutiny, and thus would want to be seen in their finest vehicles. Until they bought their English Chariot sometime after 1863, their finest vehicle was the ladies' phaeton. Contemporaries considered chariots to be one of the most aristocratic vehicles in existence and the ownership of this type of vehicle sheds insight on the meaning that this vehicle held for the Howards. John Howard's choice of vehicles was clearly a means of self representation, whereby he sought to surround himself with objects that reflected the identity he constructed for himself, that of having royal connections, as he claimed in 1834 that he was the illegitimate son of Thomas Howard, the 4th Duke of Norfolk.
The function and meaning of nineteenth century horse drawn vehicles were closely related to consumerism. This association is most visible in contemporary advertising which provides information on vehicle type and aesthetics. The earliest available catalogue is the McLaughlin Carriage Company's 1896 catalogue. The McLaughlin Carriage Company, which was located in Oshawa, Ontario guaranteed that it would not put a single vehicle on the market which did not compare with others in terms of utility, quality, style, and finish. These four factors embodied the features that were obviously important to vehicle owners, specifically their functional design (utility) and symbolic meaning (style).
Advertisements are also useful in determining the social and economic uses of horse drawn vehicles. The McLaughlin Carriage Company advertised nineteen types of vehicles for purchase in 1896, with most types having one or two types of similar versions. Four types of phaetons were available. There was a physician's phaeton, the ladies' phaeton, a business phaeton, or a three spring phaeton.
Finally, the language used in the advertisements suggests that advertisers wanted to tap both the function and meaning of horse drawn vehicles. In 1912, Eaton's advertised a rubber tired auto seat buggy as the following, "...Here is a buggy that will be a pride and joy to every member of the family. It combines beauty, comfort and service. The roomy box and well upholstered high back auto seat with the naturally inclined bell top are improvements which add much to the comforts the vehicle offers..."(G.de T. Glazebrook. A Shopper's View of Canada's Past. Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1969. Pg.156.) The advertisers' appeal to pride, plus their emphasis on the vehicle's features, suggests that the advertisers placed attention on both the function and meaning of the vehicles.
This web page has presented the main conclusions from my research. If you are interested in further details, please feel free to contact me at the address at the bottom of the page.
Please Note:This site is under construction as it deals with a work in progress. Please check back for periodic updates!
If you would like more information or would like to comment on my web site (which would be greatly appreciated) you can email me at: "duplessi@chass.utoronto.ca"